Anglo-Saxon Literature

ANGLO-SAXON LITERATURE AND HISTORY PROJECT

(ALSO USE THIS PAGE TO REFERENCE TOLKIEN:
Click here for the Tolkien Web site with a link to
Beowulf The Monsters and the Critics)

The first paper in the course will deal with forming a thesis statement. To prepare for a paper regardless of length requires obviously a time commitment and the ability to analyze literature effectively. This printout will introduce you to the process that makes this possible, and what college teachers will expect you to know.

THE FIRST STEP IS THE PREPARATION OF A THESIS SENTENCE FOR WHICH WE WILL USE THE FOLLOWING MODEL AS AN EXAMPLE. CONSULT THE STYLE BOOK FOR MORE DETAILS:

Beowulf or The Wanderer or The Seafarer etc. evidences___________regarding Anglo-Saxon culture?

To analyze and write about interpretive literature in this class, two perspectives should apply: the historical and the textual. Historical criticism means placing the poem in the social, political and philosophical contexts that produced it. Textual means looking at the text as an independent work of art and providing a critique according to accepted standards of literary criticism, so...

The following are general questions of a textual nature that can be applied to any work we do in the course:

1. Determine whether the work may best reflect the mimetic, pragmatic or expressive theory.

2. Read the work very quickly one time to get a sense of the general meaning. This is especially useful in narrative works that have a story line.

3. Find out what kind of work it is: The classification of literature into types called GENRES that have specific characteristics can help determine meaning: poetry--sonnet, ode, epic, lyric etc.,

4. Read the work a second time carefully. Even with narrative poetry, you must get in the habit of looking for more than plot. Interpretive literature draws inferences that are often not seen in a first examination.

5. It is easy to skip vocabulary you do not know, but if you do, comprehension becomes more difficult. Asking vocab. on evaluations is to be expected.

6. The most important way to understand literature is to note that it is based on figurative language, commonly referred to as "figures of speech". Figurative language is defined as, "Intentional departure from the normal order, construction, or meaning of words in order to gain strength and freshness of expression, to create a pictorial effect, to describe by analogy, or to discover and illustrate similarities in otherwise dissimilar things." Know the common figures of speech: simile, metaphor, personification, alliteration, irony and paradox. The list of literary terms in the back of the textbook.

7. Distinguish between connotation and denotation.

8. How does a writer create inference?

9. State what you believe to be the work's theme (not = moral).

10. Frequently asked questions:

A.--I read it but I don't understand it.
B.--Should I read SPARK NOTES? Parallel: Would you eat baby food today as a steady diet?
C.--How familiar should I be with the work? (class / home / time management)
D.--NOTE: SINCE THE SEMESTER EXAMINATIONS DEALS WITH PASSAGE RECOGNITION, NOT READING AND NOT BRINGING THE MATERIALS TO CLASS ARE SERIOUS DEFICIENCIES.

UNDERSTANDING ANGLO-SAXON POETRY

BECOMING A DETECTIVE: YOUR CASE: DETERMINE THE NATURE OF THE ANGLO-SAXON CULTURAL EXPERIENCE:

The history of a people can be reduced to names and dates and battles, but such often destroys the spirit of a culture. How does one capture an abstraction? You will assume the role of a historian and examine documentation provided to draw inferences about the composition of Beowulf and Anglo-Saxon elegiac poetry like The Wife's Lament and The Wanderer from a historical and cultural perspective. What does a historian pursue?

We may review the unfolding of history in four ways:

theocentric--there is a divine plan at work: Do the Anglo - Saxons have a sense of a divine presence as we understand the concept today? This is very critical to an understanding of Beowulf. It would be useful to read an essay entitled, "Beowulf: The Monsters and The Critics by J.R.R. Tolkien.
economic--may we posit that the historical process evolves as a result of economic conflict. Throughout time, have we witnessed inevitable struggles between the "haves" and the "have nots"? Does the terms "dialectical materialism" mean anything to you? Check to see what a philosopher named Hegel might believe about Anglo-Saxon society? Click here. The philosophy of the Greek Heraclitus might also be of value. Click here. How important was economic prosperity to an Anglo-Saxon? What did they value? How did they cope with the unpredictability of a constantly changing environment? Why?
naturalistic--History is a product of forces beyond the control of man, who must adapt to them in order to survive. Although it might appear that technology has mastered such forces we know that the fury of nature will often overcome the best defenses man can muster. One of the study guide questions asks about the tone of Anglo - Saxon poetry? As you investigate their culture, try to envision what is was like to live? With what view of history may this one conflict?
environmental--humans shape history by responding to those conditions they create. Do you believe that Anglo - Saxons could determine their own destiny? Recall your novel GRENDEL, and the dialogue between the dragon and Grendel.
For a primary source commentary on Germanic sociology, click here for Tacitus., a Roman historian (55-117 AD) whose commentary on the early history of the Roman empire including its Germanic tribes provide important political, social and psychological observations necessary for understanding Beowulf. His works include the Annals and the Histories.

THE ANGLO-SAXON HISTORY PROJECT

DIRECTIONS

Let's role play the historian:

1. What does a historian do?
2 What is he / she after?
3. How does the historian acquire information?
4. Most importantly, how does the historian evaluate it? (Remember the role of the SCOP.)
5. The following questions are of a "historical-cultural" nature and approaches the study of Beowulf and other Anglo-Saxon poetry contextually: Review Tolkien's, Beowulf: The Monsters and the Critics:

A. What is meant by the heroic ideal?
B. Characterize epic poetry.
C. What role did the Scop have? (look up the term)
D. What kind of literature was produced and why?
E. What was the tone of Anglo-Saxon poetry? Why?
F. What was the comitatus code? (look up the term: see student curriculum links). Note that its sociology was not without paradox:

1. Did Beowulf honor its provisions in fight one?
2. Where did the violation occur?
3. What happens in fight two regarding the comitatus? (flashback and foreshadowing)
4. How does the code function in fight three?
5. Did Tolkien believe the code was viable?

G. What was meant by ring structure? (see below)
H. How does the poem seem to embody both Christian and pagan influences. Why does Tolkien believe the poem is more than a jumble of pagan and Christian elements that the scop carelessly confused.
I. What does Weregild mean?
J. See the novel GRENDEL by John Gardner. How is the legend retold?

INSTRUCTIONS: Your mission is to determine how Anglo-Saxon culture developed and influenced the poetry mentioned above.

1. Construct a profile of Anglo-Saxon society--several paragraphs reflecting what you believe their society valued...Don't limit yourself--explore weapons, clothing, food, shelter, politics, religious beliefs, values, treatment of women, socio-economic factors, especially the role of the imagination in the artistic process--the Monsters...

2. Primary Sources:

a. Two excellent primary sources are Bede's History of the English People and The Anglo- Saxon Chronicle. Both are on line under Student Curriculum Links for The Anglo-Saxon Period. Click here.

b. The texts of the assigned poems, plus the excerpts printed below this Bibliography: (Caedmon)

3. Secondary Sources:

a. The same Student Curriculum Link has excellent web sites--use especially ANGELCYNN LIVING HISTORY, and NOTE THE VARIOUS SUBSECTIONS dealing with invasions, clothing, warfare, weapons, religion etc.

b. The introduction to your textbook for the Anglo-Saxon period.

c. John Gardner's Grendel is excellent. (New York: Ballantine Books, 1971).

d. A good book-length study is by Stanley Greenfield entitled A Critical History of Old English Literature. (New York: New York University Press, 1977).

e. J.R.R. Tolkien's Beowulf The Monsters and the Critics is a must read. It is reprinted in Modern Critical Interpretations of Beowulf edited by Harold Bloom (New York: Chelsea Press, 1987)

f. Lewis E. Nicholson (ed). An Anthology of Beowulf Criticism. (University of Notre Dame Press, 1980). (This anthology of essays is excellent for the Christian-pagan values in the poem, and it also contains Tolkien's essay.)

ADDITIONAL PRIMARY SOURCES...

Caedmon's Hymn:

Caedmon was an illiterate farm hand who left the mead-hall because he could not sing or tell stories, but according to the historian BEDE, he composed the following poem which came to him, possibly from divine inspiration, during a dream:

Now we must praise Heaven's kingdom guardian
The creator's might and his mind-plans,
Glory-father, when he of wonders of every one
Eternal lord, the beginning established.
He first created for men's sons
Heaven as a roof, holy creator,
Then middle-earth mankind's guardian,
Eternal lord, afterwards made--
For men earth, Master almighty.

The next selection is prose, not poetry and describes the impact that Christianity had on Anglo-Saxon society. The scene is the conversion of King Edwin, and is spoken by one of his nobles:

The present life of man upon earth, O King, seems to me in
comparison with that time which is unknown to us like the
swift flight of a sparrow through mead-hall where you sit
at supper in winter, with your Ealdormen and thanes,
while the fire blazes in the midst and the hall is warmed,
but the wintry storms of rain or snow are raging abroad.
The sparrow, flying in at one door and immediately out
at another, whilst he is within, is safe from the wintry
tempest, but after a short space of fair weather, he im-
mediately vanishes out of your sight, passing from winter
to winter again. So this life of man appears for a
little while, but of what is to follow or what went before
we know nothing at all. If, therefore,. this new doctrine
[Christianity] tells us something more certain, it seems
justly to be followed in our kingdom.

HONORS BRITISH LITERATURE

The Honors British Literature Class should work with the criticism of NORTHROP FRYE and the assigned poetry.

WHO IS WHO IN BEOWULF: A GLOSSARY OF NAMES...

Aeschere (Ash-air-uh): Danish nobleman; aide to Hrothgar. Killed by Grendel's mother
Brecca (Brek-ka): friend of Beowulf when young: see the swimming meet episode
Ecglaf (Edge-lahf): Unferth's father
Ecgtheow (Edge-thay-oh): Beowulf's father
Freawaru (Fray-a-wa-roo): Danish princess--Hrothgar's daughter
Geats (Gay-otts): People of southern Sweden. Beowulf's tribe.
Healfdane (Heh-alf-den) Danish king. Father of Hrothgar
Herot (spelling varies) (heh-oh-rot): Battle hall built by Hrothgar for his tribe
Hrothgar (Hroth-gar): Danish king--assisted by Beowulf--victim of Grendel
Hrethel (Hre-th-el): King of the Geats, Hygelac's father, Beowulf's grandfather
Hygelac (Higge-lawk): King of the Geats; uncle of Beowulf
Nighan (Ni-an): Vicious horrible beast that eats BRITISH LITERATURE students
Unferth (Oon-fairth): one of Hrothgar's men, doubts Beowulf's courage
Wealtheow (Weh-al-thay-oh) Hrothgar's queen
Wulfgar (Woolf-gar) Hrothgar's herald

ANALYTICAL GUIDES FOR BEOWULF:

For each of the three fights of Beowulf, it would be useful if you knew the following information, identifiable in the text by locating line numbers and/or page numbers:


	1. Preparation for the fight 2. Degree of difficulty for Beowulf 3. Christian ideas 4. Pagan ideas 5. Forecasting or foreshadowing 6. Flashback to previous events 7. How suspense is created 8. Final outcome of the fight

The style of Beowulf is a clue to meaning. The poet or Scop had to remember vast amounts of materials, thousands of lines, so in order for such to occur, a technique known as ring structure was used. The geometrical pattern enhanced memory and added symmetry to the text.

There is a ring structure for the entire poem, and for each of the three fights, but in general think of the following pattern. In class transparencies and lectures will supplement this material.

THIS IS A SIMPLIFIED VERSION FOR THE FULL POEM...REGULAR & HONORS


	C--Prologue--HROTHGAR'S ANCESTRY / FUNERAL OF SCYLD B--Fight One--BEOWULF FIGHTS THE MONSTER GRENDEL A--Celebration--HROTHGAR REWARDS BEOWULF / THE REACTION CENTER-for Fight two (and the poem) GRENDEL'S DAM RETURNS FOR REVENGE A--Celebration--ANTI-PRIDE SPEECH / BEOWULF RETURNS HOME B--Fight three--THE DRAGON ATTACKS - BEOWULF IS KILLED C--Epilogue--THE FUNERAL OF BEOWULF

OF COURSE THE ENTIRE POEM'S STRUCTURE IS MUCH MORE COMPLICATED. FOR A COMPLETE DISCUSSION OF RING STRUCTURE, SEE:

John D. Niles. "Ring Composition and the Structure of Beowulf." PMLA 94 (October,1979), pp. 924 ff.

See Dr. Glenn's outline of the poem: Click here .

THERE ARE THREE LINE-KEYED RING STRUCTURES:

A-THE FIRST MAY BE USED WITH THE NORTON ANTHOLOGY {HONORS' CLASS}

B-THE SECOND IS FOR THE SCOTT FORESMAN'S ENGLAND IN LITERATURE,

C- THE THIRD IS FOR REGULAR ENGLISH ...

A- HONORS: NORTON ANTHOLOGY OF ENGLISH LITERATURE, MAJOR AUTHORS EDITION:

C--PROLOGUE--

1-Elegy for Scyld
2-Scyld's funeral
3-History of the Danes before Hrothgar
4-Hrothgar builds Hereot....................................................lines 1 - 85

B--THE FIRST FIGHT--

1--Grendel attacks....................................................lines 86 - 187
2--The coming of Beowulf--passing the checkpoints to Hrothgar
3--Greetings:

a-from the coast guard to Hrothgar................lines 188 to 661

4--The death of Grendel:
(This fight has its own separate ring structure).........lines
662 to 835

A-INTERLUDE--CELEBRATION BANQUET.................lines
836 to 1250

CENTER OF THE POEM (THE SECOND FIGHT)

THE ATTACK OF GRENDEL' DAM
and the moment of greatest suspense
in the poem.
(Flashback to fight one and foreshadowing to fight three.)

THE FIGHT--(This fight has its own
separate ring structure.)

lines ..........1250 to 1650

A--INTERLUDE --THE CELEBRATION BANQUET--lines 1651:

a. Hrothgar's 'anti-pride speech'..................lines 1725 to 1784
b. Beowulf's departure
c. The return home........................................lines 1798 to 2199

B--THE THIRD FIGHT--

a. The theft of the cup and the dragon's response
b. Beowulf and Wiglaf / the death of Beowulf..............lines 2199- 2820
(This fight has its own separate ring structure.)

C -THE EPILOGUE--

a. Beowulf orders his funeral
b. The funeral and the history of the Danes
c. Concluding elegy.........................................................lines 2821 ff.

B-ENGLAND IN LITERATURE:


	C--PROLOGUE-- 1-Elegy for Scyld 2-Scyld's funeral 3-History of the Danes before Hrothgar 4-Hrothgar builds Hereot....................................lines 1 - 65 B--THE FIRST FIGHT-- 1--Grendel attacks.............................................lines 66 - 130 2--The coming of Beowulf--passing the checkpoints to Hrothgar 3--Greetings: a-from the coast guard to Hrothgar.........lines 131 to 480 4--The death of Grendel: (This fight has its own separate ring structure).............lines 481 to 729 A-INTERLUDE--CELEBRATION BANQUET.....................lines 730 to 787 CENTER OF THE POEM (THE SECOND FIGHT) THE ATTACK OF GRENDEL' DAM and the moment of greatest suspense in the poem. (Flashback to fight one and foreshadowing to fight three.) THE FIGHT--(This fight has its own separate ring structure.) lines ..........788 to 910 / 911 to 1100 A--INTERLUDE --THE CELEBRATION BANQUET--lines 1100 - 1245: a. Hrothgar's 'anti-pride speech'...................lines 1100 to 1245 b. Beowulf's departure c. The return home.........................................lines 1245 to 1365 B--THE THIRD FIGHT-- a. The theft of the cup and the dragon's response b. Beowulf and Wiglaf / the death of Beowulf............lines 1366- 1630 (This fight has its own separate ring structure.) C -THE EPILOGUE-- a. Beowulf orders his funeral b. The funeral and the history of the Danes c. Concluding elegy....................................................lines 16301 ff

C-RING STRUCTURE FOR REGULAR BRITISH LITERATURE:

(NOTE: T= TEXT, and X = Xerox)


	RING STRUCTURE FOR FIGHT ONE A=PRELIMINARY.................................................................(T=270-305) B=GRENDEL WISHES TO FLEE........................................(T=306-325) C=UPROAR IN THE HALL..................................................(T= 326-329) CENTER OF FIGHT ONE: ll_____TO_______ C=UPROAR IN THE HALL..................................................(T=335-341) B=WOUNDED, GRENDEL FLEES.....................................(T = 341-382) A=AFTERMATH...................................................................(T= 382-end) RING STRUCTURE FOR FIGHT TWO: A--NIGHT: DAM ATTACKS.............................................…X - 790-841 B--DAWN: MEN LEAVE HUTS.......................................…X = 842-846 C--SPEECHES: HROTHGAR TO BEO….......................…X = 847-894 BEO. TO HROTHGAR:...….................................................X = 895-908 D--DEPARTURE FROM HALL........................................…X = 908-915 E--JOURNEY TO POOL (PSYCH).....................................…X = 915- 953 F--BEOWULF ARMS............................................................. X = 954-986 G--DESCENT TO THE POOL............................................…T -420-429 CENTER-INPHASES--.…WHAT IS THE EXACT CENTER OF FIGHT 2 (AND THE POEM?) G--ASCENT FROM POOL............................….....................T = 551-580 F--BEOWULF DISARMS...................................................…T = 551-580 E--JOURNEY FROM POOL..............................................…T - 551-58- D--DEPARTURE TO HALL...............................................…T = 551-580 C--SPEECHES: BEO TO HROTHGAR:...............................X = 1123-1150 HROTHGAR TO BEO:......................................................... X = 1150 - 1227 B--SUNSET..........................................................................…X =1227-1245 A--NIGHT............................................................................…X = 1227-1245

Literature and art: Study these birds found on an Anglo-Saxon shield now in the British Museum. Does the design correlate with the diagrams?


*A NOTE ON ANGLO-SAXON VERSIFICATION:*


		Lo we, spear-Danes // in old (yore)-days people - kings // brave deeds have learned how these thanes // valor framed.

	Kennedy: Lo! we have listened to many a lay Of the Spear-Danes' fame, their splendor of old, Their mighty princes, and marital deeds! Raffel: Hear me! We've heard of Danish heroes, Ancient kings and the glory they cut For themselves, swinging mighty swords Heaney, (The Translation in the Norton Anthology): So. The Spear-Danes in days gone by, and the kings who ruled them had courage and greatness. We have heard of those princes' heroic campaigns. What does a comparative analysis suggest?

	ANGLO-SAXON VERSIFICATION: Anglo-Saxon poetry did not end rhyme (with some exceptions). The rhyme was within each line, based on a series of alliteration patterns that are preserved in some translations. This is the literal translation above: Lo we, spear-Danes // in old (yore)-days people - kings // brave deeds have learned how these thanes // valor framed. The double bar (//) is called a CAESURA, or point in the singing when the scop would pause. Each line is thus broken in half. Each half line has two stressed syllables. The first stressed syllable of each second half line governs the alliteration pattern, which makes the translation difficult. In the literal translation, line one, for example, the first stressed syllable in the second half line is GEAR, and it alliterates to GAR in the first half line of line one. Another example in modern English... ...// or a fellow of the king's whose head was a storehouse // of the stored verse whose tongue gave // gold to the language. Thus, line two: stored alliterates to storehouse and governs the pattern, and gold alliterates to gave in the next line, and governs the pattern. TRACING THESE PATTERNS is important. Look for alliteration patterns for the letters M, S, G, W etc. throughtout the poem. When they appear, recall other instances of their use. Together, they form a pattern that collectively enhances poetic irony, especially in terms of the pagan and Christian meaning of the poem: Pagan Positive: a mightier mead hall than man had known Pagan Negative: marauding monsters and menacing trolls Pagan Positive: Grendel ...gulped the blood, and gobbled the flesh / You [Beowulf] shall not want of treasure or wealth, Or goodly gift.... Christian Positive: The olden treasure, they gave to the earth // the gold to the ground (Kennedy)

THE ANGLO-SAXON PERIOD CURRICULUM LINK

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